Cell compounds -
a) The polarity of water molecule creates an uneven sharing of bonsd and making the oxygen electronegative and the hydrogen electropositive. This results in attraction of oxygen and hydrogen forming a watr molecule.
b) Water is a universal solvent which means it can dissolve any substance( polar covant only). it can also regulate the temperature of our body by evaporation in the form of sweat and acts as a lubricant for digestion and excretion.
c) Acids ( ph level 1-7) are substances that release H+ ions and Bases\(ph level 7-14) are substances that release OH- ions. While buffers are those substance that keep the acid and base normal( ph7). This is biologically important because it maintains the ph level in blood , keeping it neutral so that our body can function properly.
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Biological molecules-
a) Dehydration synthesis means formation of polymers and water by linking various monomers. In this process one molecule loses hydroxide group and the other molecule loses hydrogen.Whereas, hydrolysis means breaking down of polymers into smaller molecules when waiter and enzymes are added.
b) Carbohydrates have a glucose molecule( C6H12O6) , these are called monomers( monosaccharide) in a single molecule and in groups they are called polymers(disaccharide) and release water(H2O).These polymers are three types; starch( a long single chain of glucose), glycogen ( higly branched glucose) and cellulose ( failry long chain of glucose that alternates).Lipids have four types; fatty acids that have carbon and hydrogen with an ending of an acid group ( -COOH), neutral fats made up of glycerol and fatty acid chain, phospholids composed of fatty scids , glycerool and phosphate group and steroids have carbon , hydrogen and oxygen in rings(sterol ring). Proteins have monomers that have an amino group( NH2) , an acid group ( COOH) and a variable group. The monomers combine forming a polypeptide bind and releasing water. It has four ways of organization , primary has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain. Nucleic acid have a helix shape the sides are made up of phosphate and sugar( ribose or deoxyribose) and the spine is made up of bases ( adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine). But, in RNA the thymine is replaced by uracil.
c)Empirical formula of carbohydrate- CH2O.
dMonosccharides are made up of simple sugars( glucose) , disaccharides and made up of two monomers while polysaccharides are made up of two or more monoers .
e)Starch is made up of a long chain of glucose, cellulose id made a fairly branched of glucose that alternate and glycogen are higly branched glucose.
f)Carbihydrates are used as source of energy and for structural living blocks.
g)Saturated fat have ,single chains between carbons and unsaturated fats have double bonds between their carbons.
h)Neutral fat are found in thigh, torso area of the body for padding and insulation of heat. Steroids are produced as male sex hormones and in muscles(androgens). Phospholids are locates in all cell membranes and are used as fats and oils in the body and for energy.
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j)Primary structure has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture caused by the h bonds between the amino acid , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain to make a specific function.
k)Proteins are used for structure, enzymes , immunity, hormone production and transporation of materials in the body.
l) The ATP structure gives energy for the cell to function . It is made up of nitrogen base , ribose, adeninie and three phospholids.
Cell Structure-
Describe the following cell structure and their functions;
- Cell membrane: is the outer covering of a cell that provides protection, transport of materials and premeabiliy.
-Ribosome : present in the RER that synthesizes protein chains by reading RNA and tranlating it into amino acid sequence.
-Vesicle:A membrane bound sac found all over the cell that helps in transport of materials.
-Lysosomes: found in the cell that breakdowns macromolecules and digets worn out cell components.
-Nuclea: found in the centre of the cell that is the brain of the cell, contains DNA, genes and chromosomes and controls all the processes of the cell.
-Chromosome:found in the nucleas that helps define what a protein will function and look like.
-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: found nxt to the roungh endoplasmic reticulum that packages proteins, synthesixes lipids, fats and phospholids and deoxifies drugs in lives cells.
-Mitochindria:a long cell organelle which produces ATP and is the power house of a cell.
-Golgi Body:an organelle found beside the Rough endoplasmi reticulum that collects , packages and transports moleclues produced in cell and modifies proteins and lipids.
-Vacuole:a large cell organelle (plants) and smaller in animals that stores the wastes of a cell in solids or liquids.
-Nuclear envelope- found in the sorrounding of the nuclead that helps in the transport of materials in and out of the nucleas.
-Nucleolus:it is the layer that sorrounds the nucleas which .makes ribosomes for protein synthesis and contains RNA strands.
-Rough endoplasmic reticulum: it is a big and larger cell organelle that contains ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis.
b)The cell structures help in producing protien and energy (ATP). The food molecule is digested and a cell membrane forms around ir by pinching of digestive enzymes.this merges with the food vacoule that has lysosomes that have enzymes made by the ribosome found in the rough ER. This is now transported to the golgi body where it is collected, packaged and modified into a functional protien.the macromolecule can be used for dehydration synthesis or as a ractant in a chemical reaction. And also,the vesicle now transports the protien to a mitochondria where it is broken down and energy is created. This protien can also be taken to a chloroplast , in a plant, for photosynthesis.
DNA:
a) The four bases in a DNA are adenine, thymine , cytosine and guanine. The DNA has a double helix shape , the backbone or the uprights is made up of phosphate and sugar ( deoxyribose). The rungs are made up of the four bases , which are complementary.The DNA polumerase is responsible for this .This means that they alternate, and adenine pairs wih thymine while cytosine pairs with guanine with a hydrogen bond in between which connects them.
b) The DNA first unzips and unwinds with a help of an enzyme called DNA helicase. This breaks the hydrogen bond between the bases.The bases then go through complimentary base pairing with an enzyme called DNA polymerase. In this process the daughter strand is an exact complimentary copy of the parent strand.The replication is exactly in the opposite directions of the strand. The DNA ligase then helps joining the two strands joining the adjacent nucleotides.
c)Recombinant DNA means when DNA artificially constructed by insertion of foreign DNA into the DNA of an appropriate organism so that the foreign DNA is replicated along with the host DNA.
d) This is used for gene regulation, develop and process human hormones, disease resist plants and treat genetic disorder.
e)A DNA has phostphate and deoxyribose as its uprights , and adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine as its bases. A RNA has phosphate and ribose has its uprights , and adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine as its bases.
