1. The five types of blood vessels are arteries ; aorta that circulates the oxygenated blood from the heart ( right atrium) to the body and the arteries that take oxygenated blood to the body from the heart and they branch out into arterioles. Capillaries are vessels where the exchange takes place in the tissues and the cells. Here the oxygenated blood is taken and from the there the deoxygenated blood is taken to the veins. Veins are the vessels that take deoxygenated blood to the hearts and the venules are the small veins that collect deoxygenated blood form the capillary and form to join veins.
2.a)Subclavian arteries and veins- the arteries take the oxygenated blood from the heart to the arm and the veins take it back to the heart through the superior venacava.
b)Jugular veins -they take the deoxygenated from the head to the superior venacava.
c)Carotid arteries-take the oxygenated blood from the heart to the head and arms.
d)Anterior venacava and posterior venacava- anterior takes the deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart and the posterior take the blood from the lower part of the body.
e)Hepatic portal vein- take the blood from the intestines to the liver.
f)renal arteries and veins-takes the renal artery oxygenated blood from the heart to the intestines and the renal vein takes the heart to the deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the inferior venacava.
g)illiac arteries and veins-the artery takes oxygenated blood from the heart to the kidney and the vein takes deoxygented blood from the trunk\legs to the inferiror venacava to the heart.
h)coronary arteries and veins aorta-coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart and the vein aorts takes the deoxygenated blood to the body.
3.Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of deoxygented blood in the right side of the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart again. Systematic circualtion id the circulaiton of oxygented blood in the left side of the body from the heart to the body through the sorta.
4.In adults the deoxygenated blood from the superior and the inferior vencava to thr right atria to the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery .From the lungs the oxygenated blood comes to the leaft atrium thought the pulmonary vein and goes to the left ventricle. The blood goes to the aorta from here to the body. While in a fetal the deoxygented blood gets pushed from the right atrium to the left atrium through the oval opening and doesnt go to the lungs for gas exchange, This exchange takes place in the umbilical vein/artery. The oxygentaed blood then goes tot he sorta to the arterial duct and then goes to the umbilical cord to the placenta and comes back to the heart through the venus duct.
5.The deoygenated blood from the Right atrium goes to the right ventricle and then to the lungs through the pulmonary artery(trunk). The oxygented blood comes back from the lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein and goes to the left ventricle where it gets pumped tot he body through the aorta.
6.The plasma consists of water and dissolved organic and inorganic substances. The substances consists of proteins( albumen , fibrinogen, immunoglobin), gases, salts , wastes and vitamins.
7. The red blood cells are biconcave disks, this helps to increase the flexibility for moving capillary beds and diffusion of gases. It helps carry hemoglobin around the body.The white blood cell are smaller than cells , have nucleas, transculent and lack hemoglobin helps , to fight against diseases.The platelets are the smallest cells and helps in blood clotting and the process called coagulation.
8.a)Left and right atria-The deoxygenated blood from the body comes through the left atria and then to the right atria.
b)left and right ventricle-The oxgygenated blood from the blood from the lungs flow to the heart and then to the body.
c)coronary arteries nad veins- These are found in the heart and supply blood to the heart.
d)Anterior and posterior venacava- bring deoxygented blood from body from the upper and lower body respectively.
e)pulmonary arteries and pulmonary trunk-take the deoxygented blood to the lungs from the heart and bring oxygented blood to the heart from lungs, respectively.
f)atrioventricular valves- are present between right atrium and right ventricle that prevent backflow of the blood .
g)chordea tendea- are strong fibre present between the atria and ventricle that prevent the flipping of valves and backflow of blood.
h)semi lunar valves- are passage from the atria and the ventricle and alsp prevent blood backflow.
i)septum- the thick wall present between the right and left side of the heart.
9)The SA and AV node are present in the right stria of the heart whereas, the purkinje fibres are in teh base of the heart.
10)The heart can function by itself because the SA and AV nodes are the powerhouse that help the heart to pump blood and make it self suffcient. But when they both fail to function the ourkinje fibres come into action and support the heart.
11)Factors such as high blood pressure causes hypertension, and low blood pressure causes hypotemsion.
12)Systolic blood presurre occurs during higher arterial pressure while heart is pumping, and the ventricles contract to pump blood out into the circulatory system.Diastole is when lower arterial pressure occurs while the heart is pumping and the ventricles relax.
13)a)larynx- the windpipe from the nose to the lungs.
b)trachea-are the cartilage rings that extends in front of the esophagus and the thoraic cavity into the bronchi.
c)bronchi-are the two passage leading open into small bronchioles in the lungs.
d)bronchioles-are two branches that hold ar and lead into alveoli
f)alveoli-these are small air scas that help in gas exchage .
h)diaphragm and ribs- the ribs protect the lungs and the diaphragm is the muscle under the lungs that help it to breath.
i)pleural membrane-found in tbe thoraicic cavity that helps lubricate the lungs to breathe easiyl and help maintain connection to the chest wall so that there is a gap between the two lungs.also provides surface tension.
j)Thoracic cavity-is the cavity that holds all the organs and helps in respiration.
14)Cilia and mucus help to trap the foreign things to be trapped , and not let them in the lungs.
15)inhalation makes the intercostal muscle receive nerve impulses to contract the diaphragm , creating more space in the thoracic cavity for the lungs to have more space for air flow. Exhalation makes the intercostal muscle receive nerve impulses that make diaphragm and thoracic cavity ro relax that compresses hte lungs and makes the air flow out int he enviornment,
16)The lungs are the main components that create air flow , while diaphragm manages the contractiona nd relaxation of lungs. The pluera membrane acts as an lubricant and increases surface area for air to flow , while the ribs protec all of these organs from any outside damages.
17)As there is more concentration of carbondioxide in the medulla oblangata the brain sends out nerve impulses to the intercostal muscles and cells to bretahe out air , to maintain the PH level in the body(wants it to normal).`Its the same for hydrogen ions, to get rid of the high acid concentration , the brain responses by breathing air out and taking in more oxygen .
18) When air is inhaled it goes throught the nose , larynx, trachea, bronchi, brochioles to the alveoli. from here it is joined to the pulmonary artery where the oxygen moves towards the alveoli and the carbondioxide leaves the alveoli to be exhaled, as it moves from a high to a lower concentration.
Sunday, 17 June 2012
Thursday, 14 June 2012
Fetal dissection discussion
The fetal pig dissection was very informative and it did help a lot to get the idea of how all the organs look like and are connected to each other. After taking out each organ and dissecting them specially the heart, even though it was small , showed the blood route and the vessels that carry it. The thing that surprised me was how the organs were developed and already in function in such an early stage. The pig was only 30 days old and a female. It was a valuable learning experiencebut looking at how fetal pigs were being used, made me feel sick and grossed out. And this feeling was worse becasue fetal pigs are the closest to human fetal.The organs were connected as they were lined up properly and the vessels that connected them to help move blood, nutrients and otehr vital fluids in the body.
Monday, 28 May 2012
Reproductive system
b)Seminiferous tubules & intestitial cell- produces sprems in the testes and the cells produce testosterone are produced.
c)epididymis -it stores sperms, in the testes.
d)Vas deferens- from the epididymis to the urethrea helps the sperm travles and stores.
e)prostate gland-it secretes basic fluid and enhances sprem mobility.
f)\cowpers gland-helps in lubricatiuon by producing mucus.
g)seminal vesicles-provides energy for sperm by prducing fructose.
h) penis-it cindcuts the semesn to the vgina durind sexual intercourse.
i)urethra-joins the vas deferens with the penis, to help transport the semen.
2.The semen travels from the seminiferous tubules in the testes to the epididymis and then enters the vas deferens , the sperm then enters the urethra which connecs to the penis. during this process the sperms develops and is ready to be fretilized.
3)Seminal fliuds contains the seminle vesicle that sectres fructose that supplies energy for the sperm, the prostate gland that excretes base and enhances sperm mobility and the cowpers gland that produces mucus for lubrication.
5)The testosterone is the male sex hormone that is necessary for sperm production , and secondary sex characteristice(voice deeper, pubic hair, muscular development)>
6)The endocrine system triggers the GnHR(gonadotropin releasing hormone) whick targets the anterior pituitory secreting LH(leutron hormone ) and FHS(follicle stimulating hormone, which are responsible to produce testosterone.
b)follicles and corpus luteum-follicle produce estrogen and rebuild and thickens endometritium, corpus luteum thickens the endometrium and releases mucus as progeterone releases.
c)oviducts(fallopiab tube)- propels the egg towqrads the uterus where it gets fertilized.
d)uterus-where the egg is fertilized and the embyo is developed if fertilized or gets shed every month as mensruation.
e)cervix-entrance to the uterus and hold the baby.
f)vagina-its the exit for menstruation, receptable for penis and the canal where the baby comes out of while giving birth.
g)clitoris-erectile tissue , similar to penis and has many nerve endings.
8)Estrogen is the female sex hormone produced by the follicle that atrgets the uterus and thickens the endometrium , also responsible for sencondary sex characteristics ( puberty hair, breast development, body fat deposition).
9)In the ovarian cycle, the follicle develops and the egg is released with hormone production inside the ovary. In the uterine cycle. there are three phages. Menstrual phase, the endometrium is broken down and discharged,The proliferation phase where the endometrium is rebuilt and thickened . And the secretory phase where the endo metrium doubles in thickness and mucus is secreted.
10)In the ovarian cycle,the FHS( follicle stimulating hormome) triggers the ovary to develop the development of the follicle. In the uterine cycle, the LH (luteal hormone) releases progesterone and estrogen hormone. In the menstrual phase, the hormone decreases and the endometrium breaks down.In the proliferation phase, estrogne hormone increases and the endometrium rebuilds and thickens. In the secretory phase, prgesterone is produced and the endometrium doubles in thickness and mucus is secreted,
11)Oxytocin is the hormone that targets the uterus and mammary galnds. It helps the uterus contract during childbirth , so more oxytoxin equals more contraction.And also triggers release of milk , so more suckling equals more milk.
12)After implantation occurs, the hormone HCG(human chronic gonadtruim is released.This maintains the level of progesteron and estrogen which tells the interior pitutary not to produce FHS( no follicle development) , also released in the urine and also maintains the endometruim lining,
Wednesday, 23 May 2012
Study Notes; Digestive system :)unit3
.a)Mouth- start of digestion where the food enters from.
b)tongue-helps to move food and in breaking it down.
c)teeth- helps to tear food apart and chew it .
d)pharynx-is the opeing to the esophagus , at the back of the neck.
e)salivary glands-they help to digest starch into maltose.
f)epiglottis- its the flap that opens and closes while eating food.
g)esophagus- the long pipe that connects from the mouth to the stomach to swallow food.
h)cardiac sphincter- the opening between the esophagus and stomach which prevents heatrburn .
i)stomach- helps to digest food and turn in into chyme ( kill bacteria).
j)pyloric sphincter-oening between deodenum and stoamch helps to move chyme to the small intestine.
k)duodenum- food particles are broken down into monomers to be absorbed.
l)liver- produces bile juice that emulisifies fat.
m)gall bladder- where bile juice is stored after liver secrets it.
n)pancreas-produces pancreatic juices that break down food into fatty acides, peptide bond and neutalizes cgyme.
o)small intestine-absorbs nutrients through villi and transports in to the bosy to carry out vital functions.
p)apppendix-no specific functions, but may cause problems if the large intestines fails to function peroperly.
q)large intestine-absorbs water and contains bacteria wuili , and stores indestable material to be thrown out later.
r)rectum-stores undested food until it is released.
s)anus-openng from where undigested food is released from.
2. Swallowing and peristalsis - The food that we eat when moves towrads the stomach throught he esophagus from the mouth is called swallowing. And the rhythmic contraction and expansion of involuntary muslces in the esophagus, that help this process is called peristalsis.The whole process is the start of digestion.
3. Functions of liver- The main functions of liver are to process protien, carbohydrates and fats so that the body can use it,helps to deoxify and purify blood,bile production( emulsify fats) ,enzyme acivation, stores glycogen , vitamons , minerals and excretion of bilirubin, choleTsterol, hormones, and drugs.
4.Bile is produced from liver that helps to emulsifies fat which makes the fat droplets disperse in water and thus, can be broken down( digested).
5.The wall of the small intestine is made up of villi , and has an outer layer made up of columnar epithelial cells where nutrients are absorbed . Enzymes, sugars , amino acid are also absorbed which through the villus and glycerol and fatty acid enter through the epithelial cellls whose SA is increaed by the microvilli.
6.The villus is located in the small intestine which creates a soft velevety layer wihting it. There are small finger like prjections called microvilli that increase the SA to increase absorbtion.The capilllaries inside the villus is where the nutrients enter from and also to the lacteals(vessels that carry fluid to the cardiovascular veins) . From here sugar, glycerol, fatty acid and amoni acid enter from where it is distributed tot he body.
7.a)Salivary amylase-secreted from the salivary glands in the mouthb( three pairs) that help digest starch into maltose and breakdown food .
b)pancreatic amylase- secreted in the pancreas amd helps to digest starch into maltose.
c)proteases (pepsinogen,pepsin, trypsin)-produced in the stomach and the pancreas, pepsinigen turns into pepsin that makes protein into peptide, and trrypsin that catalyzes protein to peptide reactions.
d)lipase- produced in the pancreas that breakdown glycerol to fatty acid.
e)peptidase- produced in the small intestine that breaks peptide to amino acid.
f)maltase -produced in the small intestine that breaksdown maltose into glucose.
g)nuclease-produced in the pancreas and breaks down nucleic acid into nucleotides(sugar, bases and phosphate).
8.Water helps in transportation and breakdowna and then eventually help the body absorb the digested nutrients( sugarm, glycogen , fatty acid, nucleotides).And it also help the body be in homeostat so that all the reactions can be performed normally.
9.sodiun bicarbonate in the pancreatic helps to neutralize chyme and thus priects small intestine from being exposed to acidic food.
10.Hydrochloric acid in the gastirc juice help kill the bacteria and activates pepsinogen by creating a PH level of 2 in the stomach.
11.Mucus in the gastric juices help protect the stomach from HCL( heartburn) and also prevent ulcer by protecting the inner lining.
12.The mouth has a PH level of 7(neutral) becasue of the food that ts exposed too but this increase in the stomach , PH level 2( acidic) becasue of the presence of HCL that helps kill the bacteria,And then in small intestine it becomes more basic, PH level 8, becasue of Sodiun bicarnoate so that the intestine to not malfunction.All this helps keep a balance in the body and the change helps prevent the broken down molecules from being damaged so that the body can use it. Thus, PH level is important it provides a safe and
Wednesday, 25 April 2012
Study notes, UNIT 2
Protein synthesis:
1. - The first step in protein sysnthesis is transcription , here the MRNA is created from a DNA template which occurs in the nucleas.First the Dna molecule unwinds and unzips using an enzyme called DNA helicase. Then the DNA polymerase pairs the complamentary bases and the MRNA strand leaves the DNA to form a ribosome and then the DNA winds up again using an enzyme called DNA ligase.
-The second step is called translation , this happens in the ribosome which is either attached to ER or in the cytoplasm.First the MRNA strand attaches to the ribosome ( each group has three pairs called codon), and the complimentary transfer RNA(anti codon) pairs up with a specific codon pair with their amino acid and then leaves the chain. This process continues until a peptide bond is formed between the amino acid which is now the protien.
2. For the codon GAA , the anti codon is CUU
AGA UCU
3.The two enviornmental mutagens that can cause mutations are exposure to radiation and DNA damaging chemicals.
4. Mutations in DNA can change the order of a amino acid to create black eyes and instead the protein may make green eyes. Another example is that the mutation can also make six fingers instead of five because the protein sysnthesis was changed.
Transport Across Cell Membrane:
1. The fluid mosaic model helps to move things across the cell membrane. It is made up of a phospholipid bilayer that gives it shape and has hydrophobic and hydrophyllic heads. It has vesicles to transport things and add membrane to their own. The proteins form different pattern in different area wihtin the same mebrane. Glucolipds help to recognize and the cholestrol makes the membrane less permeable to water soluble ions and molecules.
2, Cell membranes are selectively permeable because it only allows some molecules to cross based on size and charge of the molecule.
3. Diffusion , facilitatice transport and osmosis are all passive transport, they do not tequire energy. diffusion help s to moves molecules across membrane from a high to low concentration, faciliatative diffusion helps to move particles using a carrier protien in membrane , osmosis is the diffusion of water from high to low concentration.While active trasport uses energy and moves molecule form low to high concentration and during this process the ATP is broken down into ADP molecule and phosphate ion.
4. The factors are;
- Size of moleclues; smaller molecules diffuse faster than big molecules.
-Temperature; higher temperature increases rate of diffusion.
-CGradient;a greater difference in concentration gradient causes faster diffusion.
-Number of protien pores or carries within the cell membrane; more pores means faster rate of diffusion.
5.When molecules are too big to be actively transported , endocytosis occurs. In this process the moleclues are engulfed through folding of plasma membrane throught he vesicle and forming lysosome when the embrane pinches off. There are two methods of endocytosis; phagocutosis which menas cell eating that engulfs solid materials and pinocytosis which means cell drinking that engulfs liquid. Whereas, exocytosis means release of vesicle contenets outside of cell by fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane.
6.In a hypertonic enviornment, the water molecules move out of the cell (high to low concentration) and thus the cell shrinks.In a hypotonic enviornment the water moleclues move into the cell and thus the cell swells up. In an isotonic enviornment the water molecule do not move and stay in the same area thus the cell size stays the same.
7.As the surface area of the cell increases so does the volume of the cell and vice versa. So the larger the size of the cell the better to transport nutrients and diffuse in the cell.
Enzymes:
1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction without being used itself or altered.They help to increase the metabolism rate. Active site is the region where the chemical reaction takes place and the reactant that binds loosely is called a substrate forming a enzyme substrate complex.but to start a reaction an intial enrgy is required which is called the activation energy. There are also non protien molecules that are called co enzymes which the enzymes and these complete the actice site.
2. The thyroxin is found in the thyroid gland found in the neck and this helps to increase the rate of metabolism by stimulatiing the body cells.
3.The lock and key model of enzymatic action means when an enzyme and a substrate fit together from the beginning.
4. In a biochemical reaction , vitamins helps to synthesize coenzymes , which are very large molecules but they have to ingested first.
5. Enzymes are organic moleclues that help to increase the rate of chemical reaction without being used itself. Coenzymes are non protein that bind to enzymes and carry out chemical reactions in the active site.
6.
PH level- Enzymes mostly prefer the PH level between 6-8 except pepsin and trypsin. If the PH level os too high the enzyme denatures and cannot form enzyme substrate cimplex.
Temperature-If the temperature speeds up around 45 degrees or more the enzyme denature and cannot function but if it decreases from the regular body temperature(36.9 celcius) then usually it doesnt denature.
Concentration of substrate- The rate of chemical reaction increases if the substrate increaes until the enzyme becomes saturated after that a constane production happens,
Concentration of enzyme-If the amount of enzyme increases the rate also increases and vice cersa but the production will only level off if there are no more substrate left.
Competitive inhibitors- This bind with the enzyme and decrease the rate of the substrate binding instead.
Heavy metals- These are a type of non- competitive inhibitors that reduce the rate of reaction because they are irreversible and also denature the enzyme.
1. - The first step in protein sysnthesis is transcription , here the MRNA is created from a DNA template which occurs in the nucleas.First the Dna molecule unwinds and unzips using an enzyme called DNA helicase. Then the DNA polymerase pairs the complamentary bases and the MRNA strand leaves the DNA to form a ribosome and then the DNA winds up again using an enzyme called DNA ligase.
-The second step is called translation , this happens in the ribosome which is either attached to ER or in the cytoplasm.First the MRNA strand attaches to the ribosome ( each group has three pairs called codon), and the complimentary transfer RNA(anti codon) pairs up with a specific codon pair with their amino acid and then leaves the chain. This process continues until a peptide bond is formed between the amino acid which is now the protien.
2. For the codon GAA , the anti codon is CUU
AGA UCU
3.The two enviornmental mutagens that can cause mutations are exposure to radiation and DNA damaging chemicals.
4. Mutations in DNA can change the order of a amino acid to create black eyes and instead the protein may make green eyes. Another example is that the mutation can also make six fingers instead of five because the protein sysnthesis was changed.
Transport Across Cell Membrane:
1. The fluid mosaic model helps to move things across the cell membrane. It is made up of a phospholipid bilayer that gives it shape and has hydrophobic and hydrophyllic heads. It has vesicles to transport things and add membrane to their own. The proteins form different pattern in different area wihtin the same mebrane. Glucolipds help to recognize and the cholestrol makes the membrane less permeable to water soluble ions and molecules.
2, Cell membranes are selectively permeable because it only allows some molecules to cross based on size and charge of the molecule.
3. Diffusion , facilitatice transport and osmosis are all passive transport, they do not tequire energy. diffusion help s to moves molecules across membrane from a high to low concentration, faciliatative diffusion helps to move particles using a carrier protien in membrane , osmosis is the diffusion of water from high to low concentration.While active trasport uses energy and moves molecule form low to high concentration and during this process the ATP is broken down into ADP molecule and phosphate ion.
4. The factors are;
- Size of moleclues; smaller molecules diffuse faster than big molecules.
-Temperature; higher temperature increases rate of diffusion.
-CGradient;a greater difference in concentration gradient causes faster diffusion.
-Number of protien pores or carries within the cell membrane; more pores means faster rate of diffusion.
5.When molecules are too big to be actively transported , endocytosis occurs. In this process the moleclues are engulfed through folding of plasma membrane throught he vesicle and forming lysosome when the embrane pinches off. There are two methods of endocytosis; phagocutosis which menas cell eating that engulfs solid materials and pinocytosis which means cell drinking that engulfs liquid. Whereas, exocytosis means release of vesicle contenets outside of cell by fusion of vesicle with plasma membrane.
6.In a hypertonic enviornment, the water molecules move out of the cell (high to low concentration) and thus the cell shrinks.In a hypotonic enviornment the water moleclues move into the cell and thus the cell swells up. In an isotonic enviornment the water molecule do not move and stay in the same area thus the cell size stays the same.
7.As the surface area of the cell increases so does the volume of the cell and vice versa. So the larger the size of the cell the better to transport nutrients and diffuse in the cell.
Enzymes:
1. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction without being used itself or altered.They help to increase the metabolism rate. Active site is the region where the chemical reaction takes place and the reactant that binds loosely is called a substrate forming a enzyme substrate complex.but to start a reaction an intial enrgy is required which is called the activation energy. There are also non protien molecules that are called co enzymes which the enzymes and these complete the actice site.
2. The thyroxin is found in the thyroid gland found in the neck and this helps to increase the rate of metabolism by stimulatiing the body cells.
3.The lock and key model of enzymatic action means when an enzyme and a substrate fit together from the beginning.
4. In a biochemical reaction , vitamins helps to synthesize coenzymes , which are very large molecules but they have to ingested first.
5. Enzymes are organic moleclues that help to increase the rate of chemical reaction without being used itself. Coenzymes are non protein that bind to enzymes and carry out chemical reactions in the active site.
6.
PH level- Enzymes mostly prefer the PH level between 6-8 except pepsin and trypsin. If the PH level os too high the enzyme denatures and cannot form enzyme substrate cimplex.
Temperature-If the temperature speeds up around 45 degrees or more the enzyme denature and cannot function but if it decreases from the regular body temperature(36.9 celcius) then usually it doesnt denature.
Concentration of substrate- The rate of chemical reaction increases if the substrate increaes until the enzyme becomes saturated after that a constane production happens,
Concentration of enzyme-If the amount of enzyme increases the rate also increases and vice cersa but the production will only level off if there are no more substrate left.
Competitive inhibitors- This bind with the enzyme and decrease the rate of the substrate binding instead.
Heavy metals- These are a type of non- competitive inhibitors that reduce the rate of reaction because they are irreversible and also denature the enzyme.
Food macromolecule digestion and producing ATP
The food macromolecule is engulfed by the process of endocytosis and a cell membrane is created from pinching together the digestive enzymes.Then the food vacoule merges with the vesicle that contains lysosome, made by the ribisome in the rough endoplasmic reticulum(RER). this forms an enzyme , a molecule made out lysosomes. From the RER the enzyme is transported to the golgi apparatus to get packaged and modified and thus it becomes a functioning protein. From here the vesicles transport them to other cells where it is broken down and energy (ATP) is released to carry out various functions.
Tuesday, 24 April 2012
For the first report card my mark was pretty low because I didn't hand in 5 assignments including 3 blogs. And the three blogs I didn't even know that we had to do it. Well I think that I missed them when I wasn't at school and it is my fault that I didn't even bother asking anyone but the blog , I only asked about the assignments . And I haven't handed it two labs and that too because one day I wasn't there and the other one I didn't complete the observations so I didn't hand it in. Well for next time I have to be more attentive in class because I know I can do better if I try harder.
Wednesday, 11 April 2012
Cell membrane
2.Hydrophyllic layer-form the head and are soluble in water , form the layer and transports materials soluble in water.
3.Hydrophobic layer-forms the tails and insoluble in water , forms the layers and transports materials insoluble in water.
4. Fibrous protein-they serve as receptors for the cell and span the whole cell membrane.
5.Phospholipid-they make the framework of the cell memebrane and help to move the particles in and out.
6.Cholestrol-only in animal cell, they make the cell impermeable to water soluble substances and also stabalize the membrane.
7.Pore protien-allows lipid insoluble water to pass through.
8.Channel protein-these are intergal proteins that selectively transport ions in the cell.
9.Glycoprotin-these have carbohydrates and are peripherical( in the surface) globular proteins, that identify the cell.
Wednesday, 7 March 2012
Unit 1 - Cell Biology
Cell compounds -
a) The polarity of water molecule creates an uneven sharing of bonsd and making the oxygen electronegative and the hydrogen electropositive. This results in attraction of oxygen and hydrogen forming a watr molecule.
b) Water is a universal solvent which means it can dissolve any substance( polar covant only). it can also regulate the temperature of our body by evaporation in the form of sweat and acts as a lubricant for digestion and excretion.
c) Acids ( ph level 1-7) are substances that release H+ ions and Bases\(ph level 7-14) are substances that release OH- ions. While buffers are those substance that keep the acid and base normal( ph7). This is biologically important because it maintains the ph level in blood , keeping it neutral so that our body can function properly.
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=water+universal+solvent&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&biw=1366&bih=557&tbm=isch&tbnid=lGBLRbrExaqhSM:&imgrefurl=http://www.desktopclass.com/education/9th-10th/importance-of-water-to-life-biology-chapter-12-lesson-1.html&docid=QMbNFPgUfEsIjM&imgurl=http://www.desktopclass.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Universal-Solvent.jpg&w=500&h=399&ei=r_1OT7qIG9PDgAeFqaTuDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=347&vpy=134&dur=2478&hovh=200&hovw=251&tx=172&ty=125&sig=108977628528245541205&page=1&tbnh=114&tbnw=143&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0
Biological molecules-
a) Dehydration synthesis means formation of polymers and water by linking various monomers. In this process one molecule loses hydroxide group and the other molecule loses hydrogen.Whereas, hydrolysis means breaking down of polymers into smaller molecules when waiter and enzymes are added.
b) Carbohydrates have a glucose molecule( C6H12O6) , these are called monomers( monosaccharide) in a single molecule and in groups they are called polymers(disaccharide) and release water(H2O).These polymers are three types; starch( a long single chain of glucose), glycogen ( higly branched glucose) and cellulose ( failry long chain of glucose that alternates).Lipids have four types; fatty acids that have carbon and hydrogen with an ending of an acid group ( -COOH), neutral fats made up of glycerol and fatty acid chain, phospholids composed of fatty scids , glycerool and phosphate group and steroids have carbon , hydrogen and oxygen in rings(sterol ring). Proteins have monomers that have an amino group( NH2) , an acid group ( COOH) and a variable group. The monomers combine forming a polypeptide bind and releasing water. It has four ways of organization , primary has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain. Nucleic acid have a helix shape the sides are made up of phosphate and sugar( ribose or deoxyribose) and the spine is made up of bases ( adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine). But, in RNA the thymine is replaced by uracil.
c)Empirical formula of carbohydrate- CH2O.
dMonosccharides are made up of simple sugars( glucose) , disaccharides and made up of two monomers while polysaccharides are made up of two or more monoers .
e)Starch is made up of a long chain of glucose, cellulose id made a fairly branched of glucose that alternate and glycogen are higly branched glucose.
f)Carbihydrates are used as source of energy and for structural living blocks.
g)Saturated fat have ,single chains between carbons and unsaturated fats have double bonds between their carbons.
h)Neutral fat are found in thigh, torso area of the body for padding and insulation of heat. Steroids are produced as male sex hormones and in muscles(androgens). Phospholids are locates in all cell membranes and are used as fats and oils in the body and for energy.
i) http://www.google.ca/imgres?um=1&hl=en&biw=1311&bih=535&tbm=isch&tbnid=8H9cu-xVrPvtaM:&imgrefurl=http://www.answers.com/topic/amino-acid&docid=-hSMjF4MjG-l-M&imgurl=http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Sports/0199210896.amino-acids.1.jpg&w=319&h=216&ei=9q5WT6XMBKW0iQLh2JTvBw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=397&vpy=196&dur=734&hovh=172&hovw=255&tx=99&ty=128&sig=108977628528245541205&page=1&tbnh=130&tbnw=192&start=0&ndsp=12&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0
j)Primary structure has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture caused by the h bonds between the amino acid , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain to make a specific function.
k)Proteins are used for structure, enzymes , immunity, hormone production and transporation of materials in the body.
l) The ATP structure gives energy for the cell to function . It is made up of nitrogen base , ribose, adeninie and three phospholids.
Cell Structure-
Describe the following cell structure and their functions;
- Cell membrane: is the outer covering of a cell that provides protection, transport of materials and premeabiliy.
-Ribosome : present in the RER that synthesizes protein chains by reading RNA and tranlating it into amino acid sequence.
-Vesicle:A membrane bound sac found all over the cell that helps in transport of materials.
-Lysosomes: found in the cell that breakdowns macromolecules and digets worn out cell components.
-Nuclea: found in the centre of the cell that is the brain of the cell, contains DNA, genes and chromosomes and controls all the processes of the cell.
-Chromosome:found in the nucleas that helps define what a protein will function and look like.
-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: found nxt to the roungh endoplasmic reticulum that packages proteins, synthesixes lipids, fats and phospholids and deoxifies drugs in lives cells.
-Mitochindria:a long cell organelle which produces ATP and is the power house of a cell.
-Golgi Body:an organelle found beside the Rough endoplasmi reticulum that collects , packages and transports moleclues produced in cell and modifies proteins and lipids.
-Vacuole:a large cell organelle (plants) and smaller in animals that stores the wastes of a cell in solids or liquids.
-Nuclear envelope- found in the sorrounding of the nuclead that helps in the transport of materials in and out of the nucleas.
-Nucleolus:it is the layer that sorrounds the nucleas which .makes ribosomes for protein synthesis and contains RNA strands.
-Rough endoplasmic reticulum: it is a big and larger cell organelle that contains ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis.
b)The cell structures help in producing protien and energy (ATP). The food molecule is digested and a cell membrane forms around ir by pinching of digestive enzymes.this merges with the food vacoule that has lysosomes that have enzymes made by the ribosome found in the rough ER. This is now transported to the golgi body where it is collected, packaged and modified into a functional protien.the macromolecule can be used for dehydration synthesis or as a ractant in a chemical reaction. And also,the vesicle now transports the protien to a mitochondria where it is broken down and energy is created. This protien can also be taken to a chloroplast , in a plant, for photosynthesis.
DNA:
a) The four bases in a DNA are adenine, thymine , cytosine and guanine. The DNA has a double helix shape , the backbone or the uprights is made up of phosphate and sugar ( deoxyribose). The rungs are made up of the four bases , which are complementary.The DNA polumerase is responsible for this .This means that they alternate, and adenine pairs wih thymine while cytosine pairs with guanine with a hydrogen bond in between which connects them.
b) The DNA first unzips and unwinds with a help of an enzyme called DNA helicase. This breaks the hydrogen bond between the bases.The bases then go through complimentary base pairing with an enzyme called DNA polymerase. In this process the daughter strand is an exact complimentary copy of the parent strand.The replication is exactly in the opposite directions of the strand. The DNA ligase then helps joining the two strands joining the adjacent nucleotides.
c)Recombinant DNA means when DNA artificially constructed by insertion of foreign DNA into the DNA of an appropriate organism so that the foreign DNA is replicated along with the host DNA.
d) This is used for gene regulation, develop and process human hormones, disease resist plants and treat genetic disorder.
e)A DNA has phostphate and deoxyribose as its uprights , and adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine as its bases. A RNA has phosphate and ribose has its uprights , and adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine as its bases.
a) The polarity of water molecule creates an uneven sharing of bonsd and making the oxygen electronegative and the hydrogen electropositive. This results in attraction of oxygen and hydrogen forming a watr molecule.
b) Water is a universal solvent which means it can dissolve any substance( polar covant only). it can also regulate the temperature of our body by evaporation in the form of sweat and acts as a lubricant for digestion and excretion.
c) Acids ( ph level 1-7) are substances that release H+ ions and Bases\(ph level 7-14) are substances that release OH- ions. While buffers are those substance that keep the acid and base normal( ph7). This is biologically important because it maintains the ph level in blood , keeping it neutral so that our body can function properly.
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=water+universal+solvent&um=1&hl=en&sa=N&biw=1366&bih=557&tbm=isch&tbnid=lGBLRbrExaqhSM:&imgrefurl=http://www.desktopclass.com/education/9th-10th/importance-of-water-to-life-biology-chapter-12-lesson-1.html&docid=QMbNFPgUfEsIjM&imgurl=http://www.desktopclass.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Universal-Solvent.jpg&w=500&h=399&ei=r_1OT7qIG9PDgAeFqaTuDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=347&vpy=134&dur=2478&hovh=200&hovw=251&tx=172&ty=125&sig=108977628528245541205&page=1&tbnh=114&tbnw=143&start=0&ndsp=24&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0
Biological molecules-
a) Dehydration synthesis means formation of polymers and water by linking various monomers. In this process one molecule loses hydroxide group and the other molecule loses hydrogen.Whereas, hydrolysis means breaking down of polymers into smaller molecules when waiter and enzymes are added.
b) Carbohydrates have a glucose molecule( C6H12O6) , these are called monomers( monosaccharide) in a single molecule and in groups they are called polymers(disaccharide) and release water(H2O).These polymers are three types; starch( a long single chain of glucose), glycogen ( higly branched glucose) and cellulose ( failry long chain of glucose that alternates).Lipids have four types; fatty acids that have carbon and hydrogen with an ending of an acid group ( -COOH), neutral fats made up of glycerol and fatty acid chain, phospholids composed of fatty scids , glycerool and phosphate group and steroids have carbon , hydrogen and oxygen in rings(sterol ring). Proteins have monomers that have an amino group( NH2) , an acid group ( COOH) and a variable group. The monomers combine forming a polypeptide bind and releasing water. It has four ways of organization , primary has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain. Nucleic acid have a helix shape the sides are made up of phosphate and sugar( ribose or deoxyribose) and the spine is made up of bases ( adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine). But, in RNA the thymine is replaced by uracil.
c)Empirical formula of carbohydrate- CH2O.
dMonosccharides are made up of simple sugars( glucose) , disaccharides and made up of two monomers while polysaccharides are made up of two or more monoers .
e)Starch is made up of a long chain of glucose, cellulose id made a fairly branched of glucose that alternate and glycogen are higly branched glucose.
f)Carbihydrates are used as source of energy and for structural living blocks.
g)Saturated fat have ,single chains between carbons and unsaturated fats have double bonds between their carbons.
h)Neutral fat are found in thigh, torso area of the body for padding and insulation of heat. Steroids are produced as male sex hormones and in muscles(androgens). Phospholids are locates in all cell membranes and are used as fats and oils in the body and for energy.
i) http://www.google.ca/imgres?um=1&hl=en&biw=1311&bih=535&tbm=isch&tbnid=8H9cu-xVrPvtaM:&imgrefurl=http://www.answers.com/topic/amino-acid&docid=-hSMjF4MjG-l-M&imgurl=http://content.answcdn.com/main/content/img/oxford/Oxford_Sports/0199210896.amino-acids.1.jpg&w=319&h=216&ei=9q5WT6XMBKW0iQLh2JTvBw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=397&vpy=196&dur=734&hovh=172&hovw=255&tx=99&ty=128&sig=108977628528245541205&page=1&tbnh=130&tbnw=192&start=0&ndsp=12&ved=1t:429,r:2,s:0
j)Primary structure has a sequence of amino acid in a line, secondary has a helix struture caused by the h bonds between the amino acid , tertiary has covalent , ionic and hydrogen bonding and quaternary has specific arrangement of the polypeptide chain to make a specific function.
k)Proteins are used for structure, enzymes , immunity, hormone production and transporation of materials in the body.
l) The ATP structure gives energy for the cell to function . It is made up of nitrogen base , ribose, adeninie and three phospholids.
Cell Structure-
Describe the following cell structure and their functions;
- Cell membrane: is the outer covering of a cell that provides protection, transport of materials and premeabiliy.
-Ribosome : present in the RER that synthesizes protein chains by reading RNA and tranlating it into amino acid sequence.
-Vesicle:A membrane bound sac found all over the cell that helps in transport of materials.
-Lysosomes: found in the cell that breakdowns macromolecules and digets worn out cell components.
-Nuclea: found in the centre of the cell that is the brain of the cell, contains DNA, genes and chromosomes and controls all the processes of the cell.
-Chromosome:found in the nucleas that helps define what a protein will function and look like.
-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: found nxt to the roungh endoplasmic reticulum that packages proteins, synthesixes lipids, fats and phospholids and deoxifies drugs in lives cells.
-Mitochindria:a long cell organelle which produces ATP and is the power house of a cell.
-Golgi Body:an organelle found beside the Rough endoplasmi reticulum that collects , packages and transports moleclues produced in cell and modifies proteins and lipids.
-Vacuole:a large cell organelle (plants) and smaller in animals that stores the wastes of a cell in solids or liquids.
-Nuclear envelope- found in the sorrounding of the nuclead that helps in the transport of materials in and out of the nucleas.
-Nucleolus:it is the layer that sorrounds the nucleas which .makes ribosomes for protein synthesis and contains RNA strands.
-Rough endoplasmic reticulum: it is a big and larger cell organelle that contains ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis.
b)The cell structures help in producing protien and energy (ATP). The food molecule is digested and a cell membrane forms around ir by pinching of digestive enzymes.this merges with the food vacoule that has lysosomes that have enzymes made by the ribosome found in the rough ER. This is now transported to the golgi body where it is collected, packaged and modified into a functional protien.the macromolecule can be used for dehydration synthesis or as a ractant in a chemical reaction. And also,the vesicle now transports the protien to a mitochondria where it is broken down and energy is created. This protien can also be taken to a chloroplast , in a plant, for photosynthesis.
DNA:
a) The four bases in a DNA are adenine, thymine , cytosine and guanine. The DNA has a double helix shape , the backbone or the uprights is made up of phosphate and sugar ( deoxyribose). The rungs are made up of the four bases , which are complementary.The DNA polumerase is responsible for this .This means that they alternate, and adenine pairs wih thymine while cytosine pairs with guanine with a hydrogen bond in between which connects them.
b) The DNA first unzips and unwinds with a help of an enzyme called DNA helicase. This breaks the hydrogen bond between the bases.The bases then go through complimentary base pairing with an enzyme called DNA polymerase. In this process the daughter strand is an exact complimentary copy of the parent strand.The replication is exactly in the opposite directions of the strand. The DNA ligase then helps joining the two strands joining the adjacent nucleotides.
c)Recombinant DNA means when DNA artificially constructed by insertion of foreign DNA into the DNA of an appropriate organism so that the foreign DNA is replicated along with the host DNA.
d) This is used for gene regulation, develop and process human hormones, disease resist plants and treat genetic disorder.
e)A DNA has phostphate and deoxyribose as its uprights , and adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine as its bases. A RNA has phosphate and ribose has its uprights , and adenine with uracil and cytosine with guanine as its bases.
Sunday, 26 February 2012
Cellular respiration
MITOCHONDRIA
This is the organelle that helps in cellular respiration by breaking down sugars and forning ATP(Adenosine triphosphate ) that cells use as energy. This involves in breaking down of food into simple molecules , this has four stages( aerobic cellular respiration). Here the glucose and oxygen react and breakdown to produce carbondioxide, water and ATP (energy).
Cell organelles
2. Nucleas- is the brain of the cell, contains DNA, genes and chromosomes and controls all the processes of the cell.
3.Ribosome-synthesizes protein chains by reading RNA and tranlating it into amino acid sequence.
4.Cell membrane-provides protection, permeability,helps in transport of materials.
5. Rough endoplasmic reticulum-helps in protein synthesis.
6.Golgi body-collects , packages and transports moleclues produced in cell and modifies proteins and lipids.
7.Cytoskeleton-maintians cell shape and transport withing the cell within the vesicle and organelles.
8.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum-packages proteins, synthesixes lipids, fats and phospholids and deoxifies drugs in lives cells.
9.Mitochondria-produces ATP , is the power house of a cell.
10.Vacoule- stores the wastes of a cell (larger in plant cell) in solids or liquids.
11.Cytoplasm-contians all the cell organelles where the transports and absorbtion of the cell takes place.
12.Lysosome-breakdowns macromolecules and digets worn out cell components.
13.Centriole- helps in cell division, produces microtubules and helps in the positioning of cell organelles in the cell.